unclebobmartin
@unclebobmartin

Uncle Bob, Software Craftsman. http://cleancoder.com http://cleancoders.com

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Twenty three hundred years ago Aristotle described the universe as a series of concentric spheres made of a crystalline material called "Quintessence" (The Fifth Element). The Sun, Moon, planets, and stars were all embedded into their own individual spheres which rotated around the Earth at different rates. Four hundred years later, the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy could not reconcile his observations with the circular motions implied by Aristotle. But circles were perfect, and the heavens must also be perfect, so he invented "epicycles". He said that the heavenly bodies each moved in small circles around a point, and that point moved in a circle around the Earth. Over the centuries, as observations improved, Ptolemy's epicycles weren't enough. So more were added. Wheels within wheels. And even they were not enough so other contrivances of speed and angle were added. In the middle of the sixteenth century Copernicus, who believed that God lived in the Sun, moved the Sun to the center and found he could eliminate some of the epicycles and other contrivances used to match observations. But many still remained. In the early part of the following century Johannes Kepler showed that the shapes of the orbits of the planets were not circles, but were ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Just a few decades later Isaac Newton collapsed all the previous centuries of observation and reasoning down to one simple formula. F=Mm/r^2. A century later, Einstein, stimulated by the work of Maxwell, Michaelson, and Morley showed us that Newton's formula was an approximation of a rather more complicated rule having to do with time, space, and the speed of light. He called it his general theory of relativity. Two decades later, using the best theories of gravity at his disposal, and Hubble's distance laws for galaxies, Fritz Zwicky noticed that the galaxies in the Coma cluster were moving too quickly for gravity to hold them together. He proposed that there must be more material in the cluster than was visible. He called that material, Dark Matter -- a term first coined by Henri Poincaré to describe a different phenomenon. By the 1960s there were many observations that galaxies rotated too quickly to hold themselves together. The speed of the stars at the outskirts of the galaxy move well beyond the escape velocity of the visible matter. Today we conclude that the universe is full of something we call Dark Matter. It forms the seeds of galaxy clusters, and it's shape outlines the webs of those clusters that are woven through space. We think that this dark matter outweighs visible matter by a factor of nearly six to one. And we have not the slightest clue what this stuff might be.

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All that comes from Maxwell's laws (which eventually derive from Special Relativity). A moving magnetic field creates a stationary electric field. A moving electricc field creates a stationary magnetic field, etc. If we start with the premise that the neutron star is a spinning magnet then the moving magnetic field creates a stationary electric field aligned with the spin axis of the star. Any charged particle within that electric field will be accelerated along the electric field lines. Charged particles that move through a magnetic field are acclerated at right angles to the that field. That translates to circular motion around the magnetic field lines. So the combination of the electric field accellerating those particles linearly outward, and the magnetic field accellerating them circularly around the field lines, casues the particles to move in a tight spiral outwards. Each such charged particle has it's own electric field which is being accelerated both linearly and circularly. This creates a circularly rotating magnetic field at right angles, which ceates a circularly rotation electric field, which creates a circularly rotation magnetic field -- or, to say this differently, an electromagnetic wave. The propogation of an electromagnetic wave is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the wave, and is therefore outward along the magnetic field lines of the star. I think I got that all right. ;-) From: Giszmo at 08/22 13:57 > This was a fascinating read start to finish! Inspiring to read more. > > The part where the rotating magnet induces a current that emits EM waves in the direction of the poles is not clear. Is that because those particles are trapped to the magnetic field lines that themselves wobble around the axis of the rotation? CC: #[4]

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Out in the vast interstellar emptiness float huge clouds of dust and gas -- mostly neutral hydrogen, H2 molecules that are loosely bound together by their diffuse gravity. The masses of such clouds are sufficient to create hundreds of stars like our Sun; but the thermal energy of their temperature, and their weak but non-zero angular momentum, are sufficient to prevent their gravity from collapsing them. They are stable structures that will last hundreds of millions, if not billions of years, if not disturbed. But disturbance can come in the form of a shock wave from a distant supernova or stellar explosion. That shock wave can compress portions of the cloud into densities with sufficient gravitational potential to enter a runaway collapse. As the collapse proceeds it can stall if the collapsing fragment has too much angular momentum. The cloud, now spinning much faster because of the collapse will often assume a dumbbell shape and the two lobes will separate. With most of the original angular momentum having been shed into their mutual orbit, the two lobes are free to continue their collapse into a binary star system. Most of these new stars are small, and will collapse into an object roughly the size of Jupiter with little or no internal energy. We call them brown dwarfs. They have been heated by their collapse to glow in the infra red, but will gradually cool. Some clouds are larger and will collapse to the point where fusion reactions will begin in their cores. First it is the deuterium that fuses, generating quite a bit of heat. But deuterium is rare and that fuel is rapidly exhausted. If the new star is massive enough it may begin to fuse regular hydrogen into helium. Many of these objects are one tenth the mass of the Sun and glow in the red, and near infra-red. We call them red dwarfs. They burn slowly and will last for tens of billions of years. Some have about the mass of our Sun. They are comparatively rare, but will shine brightly in the visible spectrum, fusing Hydrogen to Helium, and then eventually Helium into Carbon. In the final stages of their live they will become red giants, and will end their lives by repeatedly ejecting their outer shrouds of hydrogen, until only the white hot carbon core remains. These are White Dwarf stars. But as noted earlier, stars often form in binary pairs. And sometimes the two partners are as massive, or even more massive than the Sun. The first to die will spread into a Red Giant and disgorge massive amounts of material into the space around it as it pulsates through its death throes. Sometimes that material reaches the partner star, adding slightly to its mass, and reducing the distance between them through friction. When the Red Giant finally become a White Dwarf, it may be close enough to the partner star to gradually steal material from it -- especially if the partner enters the Red Giant stage. Matter, mostly hydrogen, builds up on the hot surface of the White dwarf. The White Dwarf may have half the mass of the Sun, and be only a few thousand miles in diameter, roughly the size of the Earth or Mars. Thus the gravitational potential at the surface is huge, and the infalling hydrogen is strongly compressed and heated. This process continues until the hydrogen accumulating on the surface of the White Dwarf reaches the temperatures and pressures sufficient to ignite hydrogen fusion. This results in a massive thermonuclear explosion called a nova. The explosion is strong enough to blow all the accreted material off the White dwarf and re-expose the carbon core to begin the process again. From our point of view the binary pair will brighten by many orders of magnitude every few decades. We may just see one of these this Summer or Fall in the constellation of the Northern Crown (Corona Borealis)

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